Grain and Canonballs:
American indecisiveness during the First Barbary war (1801-1805)
It was the middle of the night when a small barque, the Intrepid, sailed into the harbour of Tripoli on the 16th of February 1804. Her mission was simple; to destroy the American frigate the USS Philadelphia, which was captured by the Barbary pirates in 1803 during the blockade of Tripoli after which, the ship was towed in the harbour where her guns protected the entrance of the harbour and her crew of 307 sailors and officers were captured. This was a big and unacceptable blow to the American offensive capabilities in de Mediterranean Sea and in order to regain the upper hand in this war, they needed to either recapture of destroy the ship. After the Intrepid moored next to the Philadelphia, a small group of American marines could enter the ship. But the ruse did not last long and they where soon discovered, after which the leading officer, lieutenant Decatur, decided to set the ship on fire and after fifteen minutes the flames where so high that the entire city was illuminated. During the confusion that followed, the marines could slip out of the harbour in the cover of darkness, back to their own fleet which was waiting outside the harbour. Decatur carried out his mission in perfection and it shifted the balance of power back to the Americans. The British admiral Lord Nelson even went so far to call it ‘the most daring act of the age’.
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The first Barbary war was a unique war in many ways and it had not only made its mark on history, but it also changed the American political structure, its economy and it laid the foundations for a well trained army. During this conflict the United States had just won its freedom during the War of Independence in 1783, but in doing so the federal government had to take out a lot of foreign loans and as a result of that they were strapped for cash. Their answer was the growing trade of bulk goods in the Mediterranean Sea, where American wheat, wool, fabrics, wood and iron were worth three times more than in the US. But while the trade in these goods was very lucrative, there was also a downside: the increase in American merchant vessels in the Mediterranean also caused an outburst of pirate activities in this region.
For these Barbary states (Tripoli, Algiers and Tunis) piracy was their main income and they were actively pursuing and capturing the merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, after which their ships were converted and equipped as a pirate ships, the valuable cargo would be sold and the merchant crew would either be sold into slavery or held for ransom. This was a mayor problem for the US, because they desperately needed money in order to pay of their debts, but in order to trade in this region they either needed warships or to pay of these Barbary States. And since they didn’t have money to build a fleet, they had to agree to pay tribute.
In the years from 1784 to 1787, the American trade grew exponentially and as a result they reaped a lot of profit. But because of these growing profits, the Barbary demands for tribute grew as well. In order to meet these demands the American constitution had to be changed so the federal government could levy taxes and control the international trade with the Barbary States. Another mayor difference was that the government was given the authority to create a naval fleet to protect the Mediterranean trade. This fleet was highly needed because the demands for tribute grew ever still and in 1800 the US paid twenty percent of her national income as tribute.
For these Barbary states (Tripoli, Algiers and Tunis) piracy was their main income and they were actively pursuing and capturing the merchant vessels in the Mediterranean, after which their ships were converted and equipped as a pirate ships, the valuable cargo would be sold and the merchant crew would either be sold into slavery or held for ransom. This was a mayor problem for the US, because they desperately needed money in order to pay of their debts, but in order to trade in this region they either needed warships or to pay of these Barbary States. And since they didn’t have money to build a fleet, they had to agree to pay tribute.
In the years from 1784 to 1787, the American trade grew exponentially and as a result they reaped a lot of profit. But because of these growing profits, the Barbary demands for tribute grew as well. In order to meet these demands the American constitution had to be changed so the federal government could levy taxes and control the international trade with the Barbary States. Another mayor difference was that the government was given the authority to create a naval fleet to protect the Mediterranean trade. This fleet was highly needed because the demands for tribute grew ever still and in 1800 the US paid twenty percent of her national income as tribute.
It would take until 1801, when Thomas Jefferson became president of the United States, that their foreign policy would change. Jefferson was against tribute, while his predecessor, President Adams, was for a more diplomatic solution. Jefferson refused to pay the Dey (the ruler) of Tripoli, which resulted in the Tripolitans declaring war against the US and started raiding their ships again. But because of the new constitution, the Americans were now in a far better position to react to this threat, because by now they had a fleet of thirteen warships to defend their trade. But they couldn’t commit themselves in sending their entire fleet because war would cost a lot of money, which they didn’t have. Jefferson then decided he would only sent four ships under the command of commodore Richard Dale, but as they would soon find out, these ships were not nearly sufficient to force the Tripolitants to make peace. It would take until 1803, when the USS Philadelphia ran aground on a sandbank and was boarded by the pirates, that Jefferson decided that further action was needed and in 1804 four more frigates were sent to the Mediterranean after which they successfully maintained a blockade around Tripoli harbour en bombarded the city.
But in order to get the Dey to surrender and make peace they had to conquer the city as well. To do so, they wanted to create a political power struggle within Tripoli. American diplomats contacted the deposed brother of the Dey (Hamet), who was the rightful hair to the throne. It was then in 1805 that 300 American marines under the command of William Eaton, together with Hamet and the Tripolitan soldiers loyal to him, conquered the city of Derna; the second largest city in Tripoli. After this the Dey realised that his cause was lost and agreed to peace treaties. After peace was concluded, the remaining American fleet in the Mediterranean, which was still growing in numbers, sailed to the other Barbary States. After which the rulers, in fear of being deposed as well, concluded peace treaties with the US. The taking of Derna was a very important turning point in the war, not just because it forced the Dey to make peace with the US, but this was also the first time American soldiers would operate on foreign soil. A feat witch still lives on in the hymn of the United States Marine Corps called 'the halls of Montezuma'.
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Conclusion
In order to accomplish this feat the US needed a vast political and military network in the Mediterranean and in the end this war did not only change the American foreign policy, but also their internal political structure. Back in 1783 all the individual states had complete autonomy and the political power was very decentralised and it was only after the new constitution of 1787 that America had the power to go on the offensive against these states. Another consequence was that the internal political structure became far more centralised.
The Mediterranean network, on the other hand, was another situation entirely. In order for this network to be successful, it had to become more decentralised. When the Americans had won their freedom, they only had the financial means to send a few diplomats to Europe in order to negotiate with the Barbary powers. This political network was very small en centralised, but when these networks expanded, the US Congress became to rely more and more on the expertise of her diplomats and military leaders from the 1790’s onward. This resulted in a far more decentralised network where these ‘hubs’, the military and diplomatic leaders, could operate more effectively. If we take these networks into consideration, we see that this was not only the first war the United States would fight and win, but it also changed the political structure of the country profoundly. But the war also led to the founding of a well-trained army and naval fleet and it would make America a force to be reckoned with.
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Further reading
- Abulafia, D. De geschiedenis van de Middellandse Zee. Antwerpen: Het Spectrum bv, 2011
- Allison, R. The Crescent Obscured: The United States and the moslim World. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995
- Baepler, P. White Slaves, African Masters: An anthology of American Barbary captivity narratives. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1999
- Enthoven, V. ‘’From the Halls of Montesuma, to the Shores of tripoli: Antoine Zuchet and the First Barbary War, 1801-1805,’’ Research in Maritime History NO. 44: Rough Waters; American involvement with the Mediterranean in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. St. John’s: International Maritime Economic History Association, 2010
- Kitzen, M. ‘’Money Bags or Cannon Balls: The Origins of the Tripolitan War, 1795-1801,’’ Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 16, No. 4 (Winter, 1996), P. 601-624
- Lambert, F. The Barbary Wars. New York: Hill and Wang, 2005
- Seiken, J. ‘’The Reluctant Warrior: Thomas Jefferson and the Tripolitan War, 1801-1805,’’ Research in Maritime History NO. 44: Rough Waters; American involvement with the Mediterranean in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. St. John’s: International Maritime Economic History Association, 2010
W.J.G. v.d. B.