‘Convivencia’?: The Sicilian society through the eyes of Ibn Jubayr
Tolerance between Muslims and Christians in Ibn Jubayr’s travelaccount (1183-1185)
“But it is filled with the worshippers of the Cross, who promenade in its upper districts and live at ease in its sheltered parts. The Muslims live beside them with their property and farms. The Christians treat these Muslims well and ‘have taken them to themselves as friends.’"
(Abū al-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad Ibn Jubayr,The Travels of Ibn Jubayr: Being the Chronicle of a Mediaeval Spanish Moor Concerning His Journey to the Egypt of Saladin, the Holy Cities of Arabia, Baghdad the City of the Caliphs, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, ed. Ronald J. C. Broadhurst (London: Jonathan Cape, 1952, 339.)
This were the words of the pilgrim Abū al-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad Ibn Jubayr after he saw the city Messina in Sicily for the first time. He was stuck on the island for nearly 4 months after his ship on the way to Spain stranded on Sicily. Sicily was in that time under the reign of the Norman King William II (1171-1189). The Normans already ruled over Sicily for more than a hundred years before they captured it from the Muslims. But the legacy of the Muslim period were many Muslims, still living on the island. According to the quote it sounds like Muslims and Christians lived peacefully side by side in toleration. But this is not the whole story. In the time of King William I, Muslims were the victims of riots by the Christian inhabitants. Even though William punished the offenders by confiscation of their property and by taking away their political power, it was already clear the intolerance was growing against Muslims. Therefor you may wonder if the intolerance somehow continued under William II’s rule or if it disappeared? At the court, tolerance for Muslims seem to have been widespread. William II had just like his father a lot of Muslims in his service and he appreciated the Islamic culture. At the court he even seemed to encourage the Islamic culture and traditions. Most researches are based around the tolerance for Muslims at the king’s court or in his policies. Therefor my research looks at the tolerance for Muslims in the Sicilian society. According to the historian Hubert Hausen you cannot use the word tolerance in a modern sense but: “in terms of a ‘practical tolerance’ towards those who adhered to other faiths, or else in the sense of a co-existence between those of different faiths that went more or less undisturbed (‘convivencia’).” Another definition is the tolerance of the ‘Other.’ This research will be based on the term ‘convivencia.’ To find out if the relationship between Muslims and Christians can be called a ‘convivencia’ this research will focus on the travel account of Ibn Jubayr to see how tolerant Muslims and Christians were of each other. His travel account will help the research, because he has actually seen everything with his own eyes.
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Did you know that the term ‘convivencia’ was originally created for the situation in Medieval Spain?
There it meant “interaction and mutual influencing between Muslims, Jews and Christians in medieval Spain.” |
Abu ‘I-Husayn Muhammed ibn Ahmed ibn Jubayr and his travel account
Ibn Jubayr was born in 1145 in Valencia as a member of a well-born family. In Granada he was the former secretary to the governor of Granada. On one day the governor wanted Ibn Jubayr to drink wine, but as a pious Muslim he never drank wine. Nevertheless, he felt obligated to do so. After drinking the wine, the governor felt so guilty that he gave Ibn Jubayr an amount of money. Ibn Jubayr decided to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca from the money, because he always wanted to go there. So on 3 February 1183 he went to Mecca. He and his companions arrived in Mecca at 4 August. On 13 September 1184 they went to Acre to take a ship back to Spain. After a lot of misfortune, the ship stranded before the coast of Sicily on 3 January 1185. Ibn Jubayr travelled along the whole North coast of Sicily from Messina to Trapani. After nearly 4 months on the Island he went home again on 25 March 1185. On 25 April he finally arrived in Spain. His journey took two years and three and a half months in total.
Ibn Jubayr started writing his travel account on 25 February 1183. Consequently, he wrote almost every day in his journal. He and his travel account became famous back in Spain. He was also famous, because of two poems he wrote. At the age 72 he went back one last time to Mecca, Jerusalem and Egypt. On 29 September 1217 he died in Alexandria. The oldest known manuscript of his travel account is to be found in the University of Leiden in the Netherlands.
Ibn Jubayr was born in 1145 in Valencia as a member of a well-born family. In Granada he was the former secretary to the governor of Granada. On one day the governor wanted Ibn Jubayr to drink wine, but as a pious Muslim he never drank wine. Nevertheless, he felt obligated to do so. After drinking the wine, the governor felt so guilty that he gave Ibn Jubayr an amount of money. Ibn Jubayr decided to go on a pilgrimage to Mecca from the money, because he always wanted to go there. So on 3 February 1183 he went to Mecca. He and his companions arrived in Mecca at 4 August. On 13 September 1184 they went to Acre to take a ship back to Spain. After a lot of misfortune, the ship stranded before the coast of Sicily on 3 January 1185. Ibn Jubayr travelled along the whole North coast of Sicily from Messina to Trapani. After nearly 4 months on the Island he went home again on 25 March 1185. On 25 April he finally arrived in Spain. His journey took two years and three and a half months in total.
Ibn Jubayr started writing his travel account on 25 February 1183. Consequently, he wrote almost every day in his journal. He and his travel account became famous back in Spain. He was also famous, because of two poems he wrote. At the age 72 he went back one last time to Mecca, Jerusalem and Egypt. On 29 September 1217 he died in Alexandria. The oldest known manuscript of his travel account is to be found in the University of Leiden in the Netherlands.
Ibn Jubayr in the Sicilian Society: ‘Convivencia?’
There was no ‘convivencia’ between Muslims and Christians in the Sicilian society. Even though there was some tolerance for Muslims, intolerance seemed to be bigger in scale. Tolerance can be seen in the cities Trapani, Cefalu, Alcamo, Termini and Palermo all have their own Muslim communities with their own mosques. Furthermore, Ibn Jubayr mentions that some Christians he met treated Muslims well and saw them as their friends. He also met some Christians in Termini, who approached him friendly, but Ibn Jubayr thought he still saw in their attitude the desire to convert all Muslims. This does not seem tolerant to me, because if you really respect a religion you do not want to convert someone. On the other hand, Ibn Jubayr mentions a religious parade in Trapani. He was amazed by the tolerance for it by the Christians. Moreover, Ibn Jubayr informs his readers about the capital Palermo in which, according to him, Muslims have more freedom in the capital. This can be seen in that they had their own mosques with teachers of the Koran, they were allowed the public call to prayers and they had their own judges. But this had to do with the agreement of 1072, in which the Christians promised the Muslims that they could keep their privileges, even though they were now under Christian rule. However, the Friday prayer was likewise forbidden in Palermo. According to the historian Alex Metcalfe this had to do with that the Christians being afraid that if the Muslims assembled they would create an anti-Christian sentiment. Ibn Jubayr mentions that he had not heard the public call to prayer for a while when he entered Palermo. Therefore, it looks like it was forbidden in the other cities.
On his way to Palermo Ibn Jubayr approached Christian hospitals which looked like the Islamic hospitals. According to Charles Dalli this is a sign of ‘conveniencia’ instead of ‘convivencia.’ What he means by this was that the Christians copied the Islamic traditions for convenience and not because they had so much respect for it. Additionally, Ibn Jubayr noticed that some Christian women wore the same clothes as some Arabic women. Metcalfe mentions that this had to do with the similarities of some communities. So it was not the case that the Christian women had so much respect for the Arabic dress style that they copied it. Ibn Jubayr mentions in general the miseries the Muslims had to endure. They were humiliated and submissive to the Christians. An example of this was Messina. There were no Muslims living there, because they fled from the uprisings against them. Ibn Jubayr also mentions the test of apostasy the Christians put the Muslims through. This happened with a lot of the Muslim elite. An example of this is the leader of the Muslim community of the island Ibn al-Hajar. At the court there was a huge pressure to convert, but he refused. Ibn Jubayr also tells about the bad relationship Muslims had with Christians. I think this could be true, because he was the leader of the Muslim community. He heard and saw the practise of his people. The Christians were very intolerant towards Muslims Ibn al-Hajar told. A lot of Muslims were afraid that they had to convert to Christianity by torture. The Christians tried to convert Muslims all the time. This is not respectful or tolerant towards the Islam.
There was no ‘convivencia’ between Muslims and Christians in the Sicilian society. Even though there was some tolerance for Muslims, intolerance seemed to be bigger in scale. Tolerance can be seen in the cities Trapani, Cefalu, Alcamo, Termini and Palermo all have their own Muslim communities with their own mosques. Furthermore, Ibn Jubayr mentions that some Christians he met treated Muslims well and saw them as their friends. He also met some Christians in Termini, who approached him friendly, but Ibn Jubayr thought he still saw in their attitude the desire to convert all Muslims. This does not seem tolerant to me, because if you really respect a religion you do not want to convert someone. On the other hand, Ibn Jubayr mentions a religious parade in Trapani. He was amazed by the tolerance for it by the Christians. Moreover, Ibn Jubayr informs his readers about the capital Palermo in which, according to him, Muslims have more freedom in the capital. This can be seen in that they had their own mosques with teachers of the Koran, they were allowed the public call to prayers and they had their own judges. But this had to do with the agreement of 1072, in which the Christians promised the Muslims that they could keep their privileges, even though they were now under Christian rule. However, the Friday prayer was likewise forbidden in Palermo. According to the historian Alex Metcalfe this had to do with that the Christians being afraid that if the Muslims assembled they would create an anti-Christian sentiment. Ibn Jubayr mentions that he had not heard the public call to prayer for a while when he entered Palermo. Therefore, it looks like it was forbidden in the other cities.
On his way to Palermo Ibn Jubayr approached Christian hospitals which looked like the Islamic hospitals. According to Charles Dalli this is a sign of ‘conveniencia’ instead of ‘convivencia.’ What he means by this was that the Christians copied the Islamic traditions for convenience and not because they had so much respect for it. Additionally, Ibn Jubayr noticed that some Christian women wore the same clothes as some Arabic women. Metcalfe mentions that this had to do with the similarities of some communities. So it was not the case that the Christian women had so much respect for the Arabic dress style that they copied it. Ibn Jubayr mentions in general the miseries the Muslims had to endure. They were humiliated and submissive to the Christians. An example of this was Messina. There were no Muslims living there, because they fled from the uprisings against them. Ibn Jubayr also mentions the test of apostasy the Christians put the Muslims through. This happened with a lot of the Muslim elite. An example of this is the leader of the Muslim community of the island Ibn al-Hajar. At the court there was a huge pressure to convert, but he refused. Ibn Jubayr also tells about the bad relationship Muslims had with Christians. I think this could be true, because he was the leader of the Muslim community. He heard and saw the practise of his people. The Christians were very intolerant towards Muslims Ibn al-Hajar told. A lot of Muslims were afraid that they had to convert to Christianity by torture. The Christians tried to convert Muslims all the time. This is not respectful or tolerant towards the Islam.
Social Network Analyze
The social network analysis is a method to analyse social networks consisting of nodes, ties and flows. The nodes can be people or places which are connected by ties (lines). Through the network flow resources, for example ideas or innovations. Because intolerance was higher in the Sicilian society there is no ‘convivencia.’ Which means many nodes (the Muslims) are not connected with the Christians. This means that there was no dense network between Muslims and Christians. So you cannot speak of ‘clusters’ (groups of nodes which are densely connected with each other). There was only essential contact between the communities. So this means there were more ‘weak ties’ then ‘strong ties.’ But there were always persons who provided ‘Betweenness’ in the network. Which means: “capacity of a person to connect people or groups of people who would otherwise be isolated from each other in a network.” So not all the communities were completely isolated from each other.
The social network analysis is a method to analyse social networks consisting of nodes, ties and flows. The nodes can be people or places which are connected by ties (lines). Through the network flow resources, for example ideas or innovations. Because intolerance was higher in the Sicilian society there is no ‘convivencia.’ Which means many nodes (the Muslims) are not connected with the Christians. This means that there was no dense network between Muslims and Christians. So you cannot speak of ‘clusters’ (groups of nodes which are densely connected with each other). There was only essential contact between the communities. So this means there were more ‘weak ties’ then ‘strong ties.’ But there were always persons who provided ‘Betweenness’ in the network. Which means: “capacity of a person to connect people or groups of people who would otherwise be isolated from each other in a network.” So not all the communities were completely isolated from each other.
Conclusion
So was there a ‘convivencia’ between the Muslims and Christians according to Ibn Jubayr’s travel account? No, because the intolerance was way higher than the tolerance for Muslims. But like Alex Metcalfe mentions the intolerance was different in every region. For example, Palermo was more tolerant towards Muslims, than for example in Messina were almost no Muslims lived. But if the king did not protect his Muslim subjects anymore then the intolerance in Palermo struck the Muslims too. In overall the Christians wanted to convert or expel the Muslims. This did not make them popular with the Muslims.
So was there a ‘convivencia’ between the Muslims and Christians according to Ibn Jubayr’s travel account? No, because the intolerance was way higher than the tolerance for Muslims. But like Alex Metcalfe mentions the intolerance was different in every region. For example, Palermo was more tolerant towards Muslims, than for example in Messina were almost no Muslims lived. But if the king did not protect his Muslim subjects anymore then the intolerance in Palermo struck the Muslims too. In overall the Christians wanted to convert or expel the Muslims. This did not make them popular with the Muslims.
I hope you enjoyed reading!
C.N.
C.N.
Further Readings
Abulafia, David. Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100-1400. London: Variorum Reprints, 1987.
Berkel, van Maaike. “Convivencia of Reconquista?
http://www.isgeschiedenis.nl/archiefstukken/convivencia-of-reconquista/ (accessed 21 april 2016).
Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Dalli, Charles. “Contriving Coexistence: Muslims and Christians in the Unmaking of Norman Sicily.” In Routines of Existence: Time, Life and Afterlife in Society and Religion, ed. Elena Brambilla, 30-43. Edizioni Plus: Pisa, 2009.
Mack Smith, Denis. A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily, 800-1713. London: Chatto & Windus, 1968.
Grammatico, Daniel and Louis Werner. “Travelers of Al-Andalus part 1: The Travel Writer Ibn Jubayr.” http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201501/travelers.of.al andalus.part.1.the.travel.writer.ibn.jubayr.htm (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Haskins, Charles Homer. The Normans in European History. New York: Ungar, 1959.
Ibn Jubayr, Abū al-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr: Being the Chronicle of a Mediaeval Spanish Moor Concerning His Journey to the Egypt of Saladin, the Holy Cities of Arabia, Baghdad the City of the Caliphs, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. editor Ronald J. C. Broadhurst. London: Jonathan Cape, 1952.
Loud, G. A., and A. Metcalfe. The Society of Norman Italy. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
Mallette, Karla. The Kingdom of Sicily, 1100-1250: A Literary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
Mendola, Luigi. “William II of Sicily.”
http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art253.htm (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Muslim Heritage FSTC Limited. “Ibn Jubair: Capturing the Decline of Islamic Power.”
http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-jubair-capturing-decline-islamic-power (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Powell, James M. Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100-1300. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014.
Abulafia, David. Italy, Sicily and the Mediterranean, 1100-1400. London: Variorum Reprints, 1987.
Berkel, van Maaike. “Convivencia of Reconquista?
http://www.isgeschiedenis.nl/archiefstukken/convivencia-of-reconquista/ (accessed 21 april 2016).
Matthew, Donald. The Norman Kingdom of Sicily. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Dalli, Charles. “Contriving Coexistence: Muslims and Christians in the Unmaking of Norman Sicily.” In Routines of Existence: Time, Life and Afterlife in Society and Religion, ed. Elena Brambilla, 30-43. Edizioni Plus: Pisa, 2009.
Mack Smith, Denis. A History of Sicily: Medieval Sicily, 800-1713. London: Chatto & Windus, 1968.
Grammatico, Daniel and Louis Werner. “Travelers of Al-Andalus part 1: The Travel Writer Ibn Jubayr.” http://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/201501/travelers.of.al andalus.part.1.the.travel.writer.ibn.jubayr.htm (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Haskins, Charles Homer. The Normans in European History. New York: Ungar, 1959.
Ibn Jubayr, Abū al-Ḥusayn Muḥammad b. Aḥmad. The Travels of Ibn Jubayr: Being the Chronicle of a Mediaeval Spanish Moor Concerning His Journey to the Egypt of Saladin, the Holy Cities of Arabia, Baghdad the City of the Caliphs, the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem, and the Norman Kingdom of Sicily. editor Ronald J. C. Broadhurst. London: Jonathan Cape, 1952.
Loud, G. A., and A. Metcalfe. The Society of Norman Italy. Leiden: Brill, 2002.
Mallette, Karla. The Kingdom of Sicily, 1100-1250: A Literary History. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2005.
Mendola, Luigi. “William II of Sicily.”
http://www.bestofsicily.com/mag/art253.htm (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Muslim Heritage FSTC Limited. “Ibn Jubair: Capturing the Decline of Islamic Power.”
http://www.muslimheritage.com/article/ibn-jubair-capturing-decline-islamic-power (accessed 30 mei 2016).
Powell, James M. Muslims Under Latin Rule, 1100-1300. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2014.