Magical Rituals in the Mediterranean
Curse tablets and their use in the Ancient World
Introduction
Curse tablets, or katadesmoi, were leaden tablets with curses written in them and show a rather dark side of the Ancient World. These tablets were made from the sixth century B.C. till the eight century A.D., and about fifteen hundred tablets still remain today. The purpose of the curses on the tablets differ a lot. Tablets were written because of competitive, erotic or personal means, but the main reason was to harm somebody or to send somebody to the underworld. The curse tablets were made by travelling specialists, called orpheotelestai. Because of the dark rituals the orpheotelestai practised, they were not welcome everywhere. Some cities dealt very harsly with the orpheotelestai and their supernatural services. However, curse tablets were found in areas from England to Egypt, which suggests the practise of writing binding spells was a widespread activity. How did a forbidden activity become so widespread? In this essay I will look into the spread and use of curse tablets. What was the role of the orpheotelestai in the spread of information about curse tablets? To answer this question I will make use of the ‘Social Network Analysis’. |
'Social Network Analysis'
The Social Network Analysis emphasizes the importance of relations between social actors and the implications of these relations. According to this theory, social actors are a part of a social system in which they are connected to other social actors. The relations between these different actors influence each other’s behaviour. Social actors can be; individuals, small group, organisations, nation states, or poleis. The social actors in a network are called ‘nodes’. The connection between these nodes are called ‘ties’, and these ties show the different interaction between the nodes. A group of nodes, connected by multiple ties is called a network. Through the network information, ideas, or services are easily spread. There are two kind of ties: ‘strong ties’ and ‘weak ties’. Strong ties are tight connections between social actors, like the connection you have to a close friend. Weak ties can be compared to the relationship you have with acquaintances, and are not as tight as strong ties. But weak ties can be crucial for connecting one network to another, and without these weak ties, the spread of information can go very slowly. Strogatz and Watts and their ‘small world’ theory goes further into this principle of weak ties. I will talk about this more later. So, with the Social Network Analysis I will look at the role of the orpheotelestai within the network of curse tablets. Did they played an important role in connecting different poleis in the network of curse tablets? |
Katadesmoi
First, I will explain something more about the curse tablets itself. The curses written on the curse tablet differ a lot. On the oldest tablets found in Sicily and Attica you will only find the name of the target and the name of a deity. These curses on the tablets were relatively simple because the curses were carried out together with oral prayers and incantations. With the grow of the use of scripture in ancient Greece, the use of writing down more on curse tablets also grew.
First, I will explain something more about the curse tablets itself. The curses written on the curse tablet differ a lot. On the oldest tablets found in Sicily and Attica you will only find the name of the target and the name of a deity. These curses on the tablets were relatively simple because the curses were carried out together with oral prayers and incantations. With the grow of the use of scripture in ancient Greece, the use of writing down more on curse tablets also grew.
As I mentioned above, curse tablets were written for different purposes. For example, competition in contests or in theatre was a reason to curse somebody. A second reason to write a tablet was for erotic means. Especially (young) men wrote these erotic tablets, hoping to unite with an unobtainable woman. Curse tablets were also written to take revenge on somebody who did harm to you, or a tablet was written because of deep, personal reasons. Examples of these curse tablets can be seen in the slideshow on the right.
Some curse tablets came together with figurines. These figurines often represented the target and the desired outcome of the curse written on the tablet. Most of the figurines are tied with their hands behind their backs or they are mutilated. After the curse tablets were written, they were deposited on specific locations. Tablets were often buried in the ground or thrown in a river or sea. Most of the tablets are found in or around graves, especially graves of young people or people who died a violent death were popular. By depositing the curse tablets on these specific locations, close to the earth, the writers of the tablets tried to connect with the subterranean world and bring even more harm to their targets. |
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The practise of curse tablets
The practise of curse tablets differed a lot from other religious practises in the Greek poleis. Polis religion was a very collective matter, while the making of curse tablets was definitely not. The curses on the tablets are addressed to specific people and ties on the tablets therefore existed mostly between two or some more individuals and between an individual and a deity.
The ties between two or more individuals are clear. The writer of the curse makes a tie between himself and his target by naming the target on the tablet. The ties between these individuals are often personal, and often not in a good way. The purpose of most tablets was namely to harm the target.
On most tablets also a name of a deity is written down. By naming a specific deity, the writer of the curse tries to bind his victim down to this deity, trying to send him to the underworld. The deities called on the curse tablets always have something to do with the underworld. Writers of the tablets could choose their own deities and the choice of deity shows therefore the local influence on curse tablets. Some tablets refer to specific cults within a polis, and the network of curse tablets is therefore linked to the smaller, local networks.
Orpheotelestai
As I mentioned, curse tablets were made by specialists, called orpheotelestai. Individuals turned to these specialists when they wanted to curse somebody. Orpheotelestai moved between different poleis, waiting to be invited in to serve in a particular purpose. Information about these orpheotelestai therefore probably spread orally, and the network of the orpheotelestai was small. In terms of the Social Network Analysis, the information diffusion of curse tablets went through a node-to-node network. This means that information spreads from node A to node B, from node B to node C, etc. This suggests however, that the network of curse tablets was very personal and small. Yet the writing of curse tablets was a widespread activity. The theory of Horden and Purcell gives a better explanation for this.
Horden and Purcell look into small geographical areas, called micro-regions. Religion plays an important role in the connectivity between people in these micro-regions. Within a micro-region, information spread through a node-to-node network, but to understand the use of curse tablets in a micro-region, you have to look at the broader context. Micro-regions are always a part of a larger network, consisting out of multiple smaller networks. The spread of curse tablets went from micro-region to micro-region. When poleis were already connected to each other, like a central polis and a periphery polis, the spread of information went even quicker. Also, religion was very mobile and religious ideas spread very quickly from continent to a near coastal island or the other way around. From there it is easily accessible for other people to pick up new things. The sea played a connective role in the spread of information and orpheotelestai could therefore make ties between different poleis.
As I mentioned, curse tablets were made by specialists, called orpheotelestai. Individuals turned to these specialists when they wanted to curse somebody. Orpheotelestai moved between different poleis, waiting to be invited in to serve in a particular purpose. Information about these orpheotelestai therefore probably spread orally, and the network of the orpheotelestai was small. In terms of the Social Network Analysis, the information diffusion of curse tablets went through a node-to-node network. This means that information spreads from node A to node B, from node B to node C, etc. This suggests however, that the network of curse tablets was very personal and small. Yet the writing of curse tablets was a widespread activity. The theory of Horden and Purcell gives a better explanation for this.
Horden and Purcell look into small geographical areas, called micro-regions. Religion plays an important role in the connectivity between people in these micro-regions. Within a micro-region, information spread through a node-to-node network, but to understand the use of curse tablets in a micro-region, you have to look at the broader context. Micro-regions are always a part of a larger network, consisting out of multiple smaller networks. The spread of curse tablets went from micro-region to micro-region. When poleis were already connected to each other, like a central polis and a periphery polis, the spread of information went even quicker. Also, religion was very mobile and religious ideas spread very quickly from continent to a near coastal island or the other way around. From there it is easily accessible for other people to pick up new things. The sea played a connective role in the spread of information and orpheotelestai could therefore make ties between different poleis.
In the (node-to-node) network of curse tablets, the orpheotelestai can be seen as a ‘weak tie’. This means that there is only one connection between two nodes, but this connection brings two different networks together. The orpheotelestai travelled a lot and information spread through them. So, by travelling, they could bring two different networks together. A theory that goes further into the principle of ‘weak ties’ is the ‘small world’ theory from Strogatz and Waltz. In a small world network all the nodes are connected to their nearest neighbours. But when some random, long-distance ties are made between two nodes, the network turns relatively smaller and turns into a ‘small world’. In this figurine you can see the principle more clearer. You can see that all the small (black) nodes are connected to their nearest neighbours. With the addition of a few random links the degrees of separation between all nodes are reduced.
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So, when we apply this theory to the situation of the orpheotelestai, the nodes would be the micro-networks where the orpheotelestai sold their services, and the ties would be the orpheotelestai. The orpheotelestai were the connecting factor in the spread of curse tablets and they made the ties between two micro-regions. When they made a tie between two micro-regions that were far apart from each other, they could turn the network of curse tablets into a small world network. The small world theory is a good explanation for the widespread, but yet privately activity of making curse tablets.
Conclusion
So, the writing of curse tablets was a widespread activity in the Ancient World. The purposes of the curses on the tablets differed, but in most cases it was to harm somebody or to send somebody to the underworld. Within the network of curse tablets, the orpheotelestai played an important role. With their travels they connected different networks to each other, making the writing of curse tablets a widespread activity. The information about curse tablets went through a node-to-node network and thanks to the connective role of the sea, information spread quickly, The network of curse tablets may be best explained as a ‘small world’ network. A network that consists out of multiple smaller networks, but directly or indirectly connected to each other by the orpheotelestai.
So, the writing of curse tablets was a widespread activity in the Ancient World. The purposes of the curses on the tablets differed, but in most cases it was to harm somebody or to send somebody to the underworld. Within the network of curse tablets, the orpheotelestai played an important role. With their travels they connected different networks to each other, making the writing of curse tablets a widespread activity. The information about curse tablets went through a node-to-node network and thanks to the connective role of the sea, information spread quickly, The network of curse tablets may be best explained as a ‘small world’ network. A network that consists out of multiple smaller networks, but directly or indirectly connected to each other by the orpheotelestai.
Further Reading:
Bremmer, J. Manteis, magic, mysteries and mythography: messy margins of polis religion? revue internationale et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique, (2010): 13-36.
Dickie, M. Who practised love-magic in classical antiquity and in the late Roman world? The Classical Quarterly 50, (2000): 563-564.
Eidinow, E. Networks and narratives. A model for ancient Greek religion. Revue international et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique, (2011): 9-38.
Gager, J. (Curse tablets and binding spells from the ancient world. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Graf, F. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Horden, P. and N. Purcell. The corrupting sea: a study of Mediterranean history. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Malkin, I. Preface: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Mediterranean Historical Revieuw 22, (2007): 1-9.
Malkin, I. A small Greek world. Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
Bremmer, J. Manteis, magic, mysteries and mythography: messy margins of polis religion? revue internationale et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique, (2010): 13-36.
Dickie, M. Who practised love-magic in classical antiquity and in the late Roman world? The Classical Quarterly 50, (2000): 563-564.
Eidinow, E. Networks and narratives. A model for ancient Greek religion. Revue international et pluridisciplinaire de religion grecque antique, (2011): 9-38.
Gager, J. (Curse tablets and binding spells from the ancient world. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Graf, F. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.
Horden, P. and N. Purcell. The corrupting sea: a study of Mediterranean history. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000.
Malkin, I. Preface: Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. Mediterranean Historical Revieuw 22, (2007): 1-9.
Malkin, I. A small Greek world. Networks in the Ancient Mediterranean. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.