Noble Slavers
A closer look at slavery and the Knights of Malta within the Mediterranean of the 16th and 17th century.
Slavery within the Mediterranean isn’t the most popular subject among historians, The Transatlantic slave trade between America and Europe has always been the far more popular choice of topic when it comes to slavery. Yet during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, slavery within the Mediterranean was an important component of life, in fact the Mediterranean slave-trade even out-produced the Transatlantic slave trade during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and this is only in terms of the Barbary Coast. It was the goal of my research to take a closer look at the slave trade within the Mediterranean, more specifically the role that the Knights of Malta played within the slave trade network. Most research about the subject consists of studies regarding the Muslim slavers, like the slavers of the Barbary Coast, Although naturally an important feature of the slave-trade within the region, the Christian slavers shouldn't be undervalued, for they played a large role within the Network. Recently historians seem to make progress to remedy the situation, with works like: Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants; A Maritime History of Early Modern Mediterranean by Molly Green. Nevertheless, a lot of research remains to be done in charting out slavery practices of the Mediterranean.
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Throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, slavery was pursued on a massive scale by both Christian and Muslim powers. Central of this, was the struggle between two empires: the Habsburgs, who controlled Spain, the Holy Roman Empire, and The Dutch Low Countries, versus the Ottoman Empire which controlled Greece, Turkey, the Levant, Egypt, and also projected their power on the Barbary Coast. Religion was central in the struggle between these two powers, it was acceptable to capture people from the other faith and subject them into slavery. The slavery pursued by both Christians and Muslims within the Mediterranean is therefore sometimes called 'faith slavery', which was fiercest within the Mediterranean for it was there where Christianity and Islam met. It can be debated if faith slavery was truly pursued in the name of God, or if it was just a lucrative business-undertaking with faith taking a secondary role. Although the debate hasn’t been concluded, it can be said that some of the Knights of Malta truly believed in their cause, which is indicated by their writings. Furthermore, the Ottomans (and other Muslim powers) relied upon the doctrine of Jihad, which conceives the struggle within the Mediterranean as holy. The religious character of the slave-trade in the Mediterranean becomes apparent. Yet the economic motive of the powers dealing with slavery shouldn’t be disregarded, for slaves were a cheap labour force and were often tasked with difficult and hard work. Furthermore, slave raids could deprive your enemy of manpower and work force, and were highly profitable as a source of income because of the inevitably following ransoms.
The Turkish side would elevate the practice of slavery to something of a state policy. Especially during the pinnacle of Ottoman maritime power during the 1530’s and 1570’s. It was Sultan Suleiman, known as the Magnificent in the West and Lawgiver among the Muslims who changed the Ottoman focus from the mainland to the sea. Suleiman had besieged Vienna in 1529, but this had stretched his resources to the limit, which would eventually beat him back. Suleiman was however content with the gains he had conquered within Europe and shifted his focus upon the Mediterranean. Suleiman sent for Barbarossa (ruler of Algiers, and corsair) to appear before him in Istanbul. He convinced him to join him and gave him the title of Kapudan Pasha, admiral-in-chief, tasking him to increase Ottoman naval power, which he did successfully. In 1534 Barbarossa set out with a fleet which disrupted mercantile trade, but also carried out raids in Sicily and against the Knights of Malta. Charles V (1500-1558), the Holy Roman Emperor and king of Spain (also known as Charles I of Spain) recognized the danger posed by the Barbary Pirates and their commander Barborassa on his South-Italian and Sicilian possessions. He actively tried to work against Ottoman ambitions within the Mediterranean. Thus the Mediterranean sea once more became a concert between dueling powers, fueling the practice of slavery within the Mediterranean, be it a matter of faith, economy or politics. |
Figure 1: Suleiman in a portrait attributed to Titian c.1530
Figure 2: Emperor Charles V in Armour by Peter Paul Rubens.
Figure 3 - Barbaros Hayreddin Paşa, 16th century contemporary painting.
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The Numbers of the Slave Trade
Sadly the archives, which can provide help to calculate slave numbers in the Mediterranean, are in a bad state, especially the Ottoman archives. Historians still have a lot of work to do in researching the Mediterranean slave-trade. However attrition rates can be calculated, for records were kept about dying slaves. Which in turn can help us calculate the number of slaves and replacements needed to sustain the slave population. Furthermore there are slave figures and estimates except between the periods of 1500-1578, which is a shame especially for Algiers which during the time was an important player within the Slavery-network. The network can be split up in two parts: The Muslim one, consisting of Algiers, Tripoli, Tunis, Istanbul, and Cairo as major ports, with numerous smaller ports in between. And a Christian one with Lisbon, Valetta (Malta), Livorno, and Marseilles being the major hubs.
Between 1580 -1680 the number of slaves within Algiers seems to fluctuate between 20,000 and 40,000, thus it is reasonable to take an average of around 27,000 slaves. Other ports on the Barbary Coast generally weren’t as large as Algiers. Tunis had around 6000 slaves and Tripoli around 2.000, making a total of 35,000 slaves on the Barbary Coast.
To keep a stable population of slaves on the Barbary Coast, many replacements were needed. An estimate can be made about replacements by looking at the rate of attrition among slaves. A quarter of the slave-population within North-Africa had to be replaced, as the attrition rate on the Barbary Coast was around 20-25%. This had to do with the bad conditions that the slaves lived in, but also the general hygiene standard within the Barbary Coast which led to multiple plague outbreaks. A quarter of the slaves needed to be replaced, that would be around 8,500 replacements a year of which most of these slaves were captured. Taking the figure of 8,500 a year and looking from the period 1580-1680 this would have added to a total of 850,000 slaves on the Barbary Coast alone. Furthermore other major Muslim cities also often had a slave population, Cairo had around 12-15,000 slaves, Istanbul averaged around 30,000 slaves. Most of the slaves that were in cities like the aforementioned came from the Levant or Africa and weren’t Christians. On the Christian Side the Spaniards and Italians (including the Maltanese order) were the biggest slavers.
Italian historian Salvatore Bono gives us an estimate that around 50.000-60.000 slaves were in Italy. Taking attrition rates into account, which was far lower than the Barbary Coast. Bono estimates that around 500.000 Muslims must have been in Italy over the period of 1500-1800. For Spain it’s more difficult to acquire numbers about their activities in the Mediterranean, for they also participated within the Atlantic slave-trade. Evidence, however, points to around 30.000-50.000 slaves. Extrapolating the same attrition rates Bono found in Italy and applying them to Spain, gives a rough estimate of 500,000 slaves between 1500-1800. Then taking into account the Reconquista, and enslavement of Moors (and Transatlantic slave trade) it is fair to think the numbers in Spain exceed a million. Valetta, or Malta played an important role in acquiring these slaves, Valetta would become the bastion of Christendom in the Mediterranean. The slave market of Valetta in its prime could compete with the expansive markets in Istanbul and Algiers, which numbered around 20,000/30,000 slaves. In short the Knights were one of the most important players within the slave-trade.
Between 1580 -1680 the number of slaves within Algiers seems to fluctuate between 20,000 and 40,000, thus it is reasonable to take an average of around 27,000 slaves. Other ports on the Barbary Coast generally weren’t as large as Algiers. Tunis had around 6000 slaves and Tripoli around 2.000, making a total of 35,000 slaves on the Barbary Coast.
To keep a stable population of slaves on the Barbary Coast, many replacements were needed. An estimate can be made about replacements by looking at the rate of attrition among slaves. A quarter of the slave-population within North-Africa had to be replaced, as the attrition rate on the Barbary Coast was around 20-25%. This had to do with the bad conditions that the slaves lived in, but also the general hygiene standard within the Barbary Coast which led to multiple plague outbreaks. A quarter of the slaves needed to be replaced, that would be around 8,500 replacements a year of which most of these slaves were captured. Taking the figure of 8,500 a year and looking from the period 1580-1680 this would have added to a total of 850,000 slaves on the Barbary Coast alone. Furthermore other major Muslim cities also often had a slave population, Cairo had around 12-15,000 slaves, Istanbul averaged around 30,000 slaves. Most of the slaves that were in cities like the aforementioned came from the Levant or Africa and weren’t Christians. On the Christian Side the Spaniards and Italians (including the Maltanese order) were the biggest slavers.
Italian historian Salvatore Bono gives us an estimate that around 50.000-60.000 slaves were in Italy. Taking attrition rates into account, which was far lower than the Barbary Coast. Bono estimates that around 500.000 Muslims must have been in Italy over the period of 1500-1800. For Spain it’s more difficult to acquire numbers about their activities in the Mediterranean, for they also participated within the Atlantic slave-trade. Evidence, however, points to around 30.000-50.000 slaves. Extrapolating the same attrition rates Bono found in Italy and applying them to Spain, gives a rough estimate of 500,000 slaves between 1500-1800. Then taking into account the Reconquista, and enslavement of Moors (and Transatlantic slave trade) it is fair to think the numbers in Spain exceed a million. Valetta, or Malta played an important role in acquiring these slaves, Valetta would become the bastion of Christendom in the Mediterranean. The slave market of Valetta in its prime could compete with the expansive markets in Istanbul and Algiers, which numbered around 20,000/30,000 slaves. In short the Knights were one of the most important players within the slave-trade.
Role of Malta
Figure 3, Territories of the Knights
eThe knights of Malta, better known as the Knights Hospitaller or Order of St. John were a religious order that arose during the crusades in ca. 1023 in Jerusalem. They dedicated themselves to John the Baptist, providing treatment for the sick and poor pilgrims. Aside of treatment, they also offered protection, thus they weren't a monastic order but a military one. After the fall of the kingdom of Jerusalem to Islamic forces in 1291, the Knights who had already been confined to Tripoli and Acre lost their holdings in the Holy Land. The Hospitaller order retreated to the kingdom of Cyprus, where they stayed for a short amount of time. But wanting a domain of their own, the knights had designs on Rhodes and in 1307 they began a campaign to capture it, succeeding in 1309. From then on, they were also referred to as the knights of Rhodes. They stayed on Rhodes until 1522, being a thorn in the side of the Ottomans but also the Barbary Pirates. Culminating in the loss of Rhodes in 1522. They regained a new island in 1530, which was Malta.
Malta had been ruled by the Moors since 830 AD, it would then by conquered by Roger I of Sicily in 1127, somewhat later in 1282 it passed to the Argonese (Spain) and it was so that it came into the possession of Charles I of Spain in 1516. Charles would then donate Malta, Gozo and Tripoli to the Order, who would then become known as the Knights of Malta.
The Order’s arrival on Malta in 1530, was a low point in their history. They had lost their base of Rhodes to the Ottomans. Furthermore the multiple sieges the Knights had to withstand had been a financial strain upon them. But the Knights would rebuild and strengthen Malta, they also began to focus on maritime pursuits. The Knights disrupted Ottoman mercantile trade and assisted Charles V in capturing Tunis (which afterwards would change hands, this happened a lot along the Barbary coast). Furthermore, thanks to the geographical location of Malta, the knights often came into contention with the Barbary corsairs. They fought a long struggle with the pirates, which would last centuries. The knights successfully carried out attacks, and would grow to become one of the most important Christian bastions in the Mediterranean.
Naturally the Knights of Malta gained the ire of the Ottomans once more, which would lead to an important event in the Knight's history. In 1565, Suleiman I ordered an invasion of Malta, which led to the siege of Malta. The siege was a pivotal moment for the Knights, for it would prove to be unsuccessful for the Ottomans. It was hailed as a great victory for Christendom, and some view it as the turnaround of the Ottoman advance. Lepanto followed shortly after in 1571 which once more was a victory for Christendom. Altough there is still debate among historians if it truly meant a crippling defeat for the Ottomans. They themselves downplayed the victory, but it can be said that the ambitions of the Ottomans after Lepanto turned elsewhere. The knights of Malta in the meantime reaped the rewards of their success, donations to the order had increased. Jean de la Valetta, who was Grand Master of the Knights of Malta during the siege, set out to fortify the Island (something the Knights had done since their arrival) even more, and also founded a new city, which would become the capital: Valetta. Valetta itself would later become Christianity’s biggest slave trading city in the Mediterranean.
Malta had been ruled by the Moors since 830 AD, it would then by conquered by Roger I of Sicily in 1127, somewhat later in 1282 it passed to the Argonese (Spain) and it was so that it came into the possession of Charles I of Spain in 1516. Charles would then donate Malta, Gozo and Tripoli to the Order, who would then become known as the Knights of Malta.
The Order’s arrival on Malta in 1530, was a low point in their history. They had lost their base of Rhodes to the Ottomans. Furthermore the multiple sieges the Knights had to withstand had been a financial strain upon them. But the Knights would rebuild and strengthen Malta, they also began to focus on maritime pursuits. The Knights disrupted Ottoman mercantile trade and assisted Charles V in capturing Tunis (which afterwards would change hands, this happened a lot along the Barbary coast). Furthermore, thanks to the geographical location of Malta, the knights often came into contention with the Barbary corsairs. They fought a long struggle with the pirates, which would last centuries. The knights successfully carried out attacks, and would grow to become one of the most important Christian bastions in the Mediterranean.
Naturally the Knights of Malta gained the ire of the Ottomans once more, which would lead to an important event in the Knight's history. In 1565, Suleiman I ordered an invasion of Malta, which led to the siege of Malta. The siege was a pivotal moment for the Knights, for it would prove to be unsuccessful for the Ottomans. It was hailed as a great victory for Christendom, and some view it as the turnaround of the Ottoman advance. Lepanto followed shortly after in 1571 which once more was a victory for Christendom. Altough there is still debate among historians if it truly meant a crippling defeat for the Ottomans. They themselves downplayed the victory, but it can be said that the ambitions of the Ottomans after Lepanto turned elsewhere. The knights of Malta in the meantime reaped the rewards of their success, donations to the order had increased. Jean de la Valetta, who was Grand Master of the Knights of Malta during the siege, set out to fortify the Island (something the Knights had done since their arrival) even more, and also founded a new city, which would become the capital: Valetta. Valetta itself would later become Christianity’s biggest slave trading city in the Mediterranean.
One of the reasons the Knights of Malta would take such a prominent place within the slave trade, was their struggle with the Barbary pirates. The knights focused upon the corso (Ring of pirates/corsairs) of the Barbary Pirates. They did so by founding their own Christian corso which would become the biggest Christian privateer fleet within the Mediterranean. It can be said that like the Barbary States, the Knights of Malta became a corsairing state. The corsairing of the Knights proved to be so popular that the Grand Master of the order established a tribunal in 1605, known as the Tribunale degli Armamenti, to establish order among the privateers. Expeditions against other states were often seen as private enterprises, where knights or civilians could acquire a letter of marque and sail for the corso. Their objective was to capture and board as many Islamic ships as they could, taking slaves while they were at it. These were then brought back to Malta. The captives were often held for ransom, or they were set to work as oar slaves in the order’s galleys. The Knights furthermore had no qualms selling their surplus of slaves to other Christian powers. Because of the maritime success of Maltanese corso, the Knights could establish themselves as an important player within the slave-trade.
Concluding
The development of the Knights of Malta as a naval power, primarily based upon its corsairing, explains why the Knights could develop into the most important Christian slaver-state within the Mediterranean. The plunder and slaves that the Knights of Malta were able to obtain with their naval operations eventually became an essential part of the Maltanese economy. The fortification of Malta primarily leaned upon a slaver’s workforce, the galley’s which comprised almost the complete naval force of the Knights needed oar-slaves to man the oars, ransoming was also a big incentive for the knights who had no qualms to ransoming their prisoners back to Islamic forces and finally the plunder was an important source of income. Then taking into account the geographical location of Malta, on the frontlines between Christendom and Islam, and the warlike character which the knights embodied as ‘defender of Christendom’ against Islam, were important ingredients for the development of the Maltanese corso or privateering. The siege of Malta in 1565, was a turning point for the knights and a victory which was celebrated within Christendom. Furthermore the battle of Lepanto also had an effect for the knights. The Ottomans, after their reversal of fortune, decided to focus more upon the Levant than the Western-Mediterranean. Although the Barbary Coast was still active, it was dwindling in numbers and would eventually have trouble competing with the Knights of Malta.
Further Reading:
Slavery in the Mediterranean:
- Davis, Robert C. Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500-1800. Early Modern History, Society and Culture. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004.
- Davis, Robert C. Holy War and Human Bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim Slavery in the Early-Modern Mediterranean. Praeger Series on the Early Modern World. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Praeger/ABC-CLIO, 2009..
- Greene, Molly. Catholic Pirates and Greek Merchants: A Maritime History of the Mediterranean. Princeton Modern Greek Studies. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2010.
Knights of Malta:
- Nicholson, Helen J. The Knights Hospitaller. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press, 2001.
- Sire, H J A. The Knights of Malta. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996,
General:
- Eltis, David, and Stanley L. Engerman. The Cambridge World History of Slavery. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
- Kinross, Patrick Balfour. The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. New York: Morrow, 1979.
