Depicting the Sultan
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The use of art as a means of propaganda was widespread in the fifteenth century. Fresco's, statues, paintings and tappestries might immediatly spring to mind, but smaller commissions were, though generally more personal, equally important. A particularly strong case is the development of medals in the quattrocento. The development of these medals was at first mainly restricted to the Italian Peninsula. A good example is the collection of medals depicting Ludovico Sforza, the duke of Milan (1452-1508), as a part of his much larger artistic propaganda program, which included the largest known equestrian statue in the world.
Interestingly enough, more Italian artists depicted the Ottoman sultan in this medium than any other ruler throughout the Renaissance. After the fall of Constantinople and the ensuing wars with several Italian States Mehmed II began to consolidate his position as sucessor of the Roman and Byzantine emperors. The medals made by Gentile Bellini and Constanzo de Ferrara would play an extremely important role in binding Mehmed to his imperial claims. |
. From the 1460's onward Mehmed actively attracted famous Italian artists to his court in Constantinopel. In 1461 he had attempted to bring the sculptor Matteo Passi to his court, but this was thwarted by Venitian troops who arrested Passi as a potential spy. Later on Mehmed adopted the policy of requesting the best artists when he signed a peace treaty.
In 1479, with the peace of Constantinople between Venice and the Ottomans, another opportunity arose and Mehmed asked the Dodge to send him a "sculptor and bronze-founder". The sculptor in question was in fact not a sculptor, but the painter Gentile Bellini. It is therefore also that Bellini did not merely cast medals for the sultan, but also painted the most widely known portrait of him. Bellini would stay in Constantinople until 1480 after which he returned to Venice. At the same time Constanzo de Ferrara, whom was in the service of Napels, was at the Ottoman court where he would stay until the death of the sultan in 1481.
Working on a smal surface, both Bellini and de Ferrara managed to include a large amount of iconography. Even though their works are not particularly simillar, in fact the sultan appears to be a different man entirely when you look at the work of the two artists, they share several recurring aspects. First of all, Bellini starts by depicting three crowns on the reverse symbolising the conquere domains of Mehmed; Trebizond, Asia and Greater Greece. These are generally flanked by a inscription which names him imperator, or imperatoris magni. There could be some debate concerning the definition of imperator as 'emperor' or 'ruler', a much broader term, but, as Gruber states; That even a Palatine Count a status bestowed on Bellini by Frederick III [...] reinforces the imperial rethoric". Bellini after all expresses explicitly that he as a Palatine count made this for the 'great emperor", by which he ment Mehmed II and not Frederick, the Holy Roman Emperor.
The real impact of Bellini and de Ferrara on the image of the sultan, or in broader terms the sultanate as Mehmed was already deceased by the time, was back in Italy. Here they produced a number of medals depicting Mehmed II. These medals were, then used by other artist as a basis from which to make new medals, meeting the demand of a particular patron. As these two artists had a certain authority as they had seen the sultan first-hand, the basic depictions they had made remained virtually unchanged.
Therefore, in their clear role as intermediarries between the Ottoman court and the Italian states it is particularry useful to study these two artists and their work from the perspective of a (social) network approach. Here they function, as stated before, as very strong intermediaries, or brokers, but their network does not immediatly consist of direct contact with other artists and patrons. Instead their work itself leads to the creation of such a network in which the image of the Sultan slowly evolves, depending on the particular needs of the patron.
A good exmple of this is medal commisioned by Lorenzo de Medici as a gift to the sultan for handing over the murderer of his brother, Giulliano, in 1480. This medal does not only show the sultan as the legitimate succesor of the Byzantine emperor, but also refers to his planned conquest of southern Italy; Lorenzo after all wished an alliance with Ottomans agains Napels. The artist, Bertoldo, had not been to the Ottoman Empire and the Florentine Republic was a relative newcomer concerning medals, but his medal followed almost the same patern as that of Bellini and de Ferrara. Interestingly enough the Florentine medal was produced before de Ferrara and Bellini returned to Italy and started to make copies of their medals. Even though the later copies are clearly inspired by their work, external factors, such as the spread of paper woodcuts and other printed material should not be underestimated.
What is clear however is that Venice, Napels and later also Florence made the utmost use of their artists as intermediarries whilst creating an image of and working with a new player in the mediterrenean. Bertoldo Di Giovanni, Mehmed II, 1480. © Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
In 1479, with the peace of Constantinople between Venice and the Ottomans, another opportunity arose and Mehmed asked the Dodge to send him a "sculptor and bronze-founder". The sculptor in question was in fact not a sculptor, but the painter Gentile Bellini. It is therefore also that Bellini did not merely cast medals for the sultan, but also painted the most widely known portrait of him. Bellini would stay in Constantinople until 1480 after which he returned to Venice. At the same time Constanzo de Ferrara, whom was in the service of Napels, was at the Ottoman court where he would stay until the death of the sultan in 1481.
Working on a smal surface, both Bellini and de Ferrara managed to include a large amount of iconography. Even though their works are not particularly simillar, in fact the sultan appears to be a different man entirely when you look at the work of the two artists, they share several recurring aspects. First of all, Bellini starts by depicting three crowns on the reverse symbolising the conquere domains of Mehmed; Trebizond, Asia and Greater Greece. These are generally flanked by a inscription which names him imperator, or imperatoris magni. There could be some debate concerning the definition of imperator as 'emperor' or 'ruler', a much broader term, but, as Gruber states; That even a Palatine Count a status bestowed on Bellini by Frederick III [...] reinforces the imperial rethoric". Bellini after all expresses explicitly that he as a Palatine count made this for the 'great emperor", by which he ment Mehmed II and not Frederick, the Holy Roman Emperor.
The real impact of Bellini and de Ferrara on the image of the sultan, or in broader terms the sultanate as Mehmed was already deceased by the time, was back in Italy. Here they produced a number of medals depicting Mehmed II. These medals were, then used by other artist as a basis from which to make new medals, meeting the demand of a particular patron. As these two artists had a certain authority as they had seen the sultan first-hand, the basic depictions they had made remained virtually unchanged.
Therefore, in their clear role as intermediarries between the Ottoman court and the Italian states it is particularry useful to study these two artists and their work from the perspective of a (social) network approach. Here they function, as stated before, as very strong intermediaries, or brokers, but their network does not immediatly consist of direct contact with other artists and patrons. Instead their work itself leads to the creation of such a network in which the image of the Sultan slowly evolves, depending on the particular needs of the patron.
A good exmple of this is medal commisioned by Lorenzo de Medici as a gift to the sultan for handing over the murderer of his brother, Giulliano, in 1480. This medal does not only show the sultan as the legitimate succesor of the Byzantine emperor, but also refers to his planned conquest of southern Italy; Lorenzo after all wished an alliance with Ottomans agains Napels. The artist, Bertoldo, had not been to the Ottoman Empire and the Florentine Republic was a relative newcomer concerning medals, but his medal followed almost the same patern as that of Bellini and de Ferrara. Interestingly enough the Florentine medal was produced before de Ferrara and Bellini returned to Italy and started to make copies of their medals. Even though the later copies are clearly inspired by their work, external factors, such as the spread of paper woodcuts and other printed material should not be underestimated.
What is clear however is that Venice, Napels and later also Florence made the utmost use of their artists as intermediarries whilst creating an image of and working with a new player in the mediterrenean. Bertoldo Di Giovanni, Mehmed II, 1480. © Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
The Victoria and Albert Museum
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