Greek theoroi in Roman Asia-Minor
Most of us will probably be shackled to the television this summer to watch our favourite athletes perform at the Olympic Games in Rio the Janeiro. Aside from the sportive aspect, the Olympic Games have a strong political dimension as well. Heads of states and politicians will travel to Rio to represent their nations at the games. This was no different in antiquity. Greek city-states sent ambassadors to athletic games and festivals: theoroi.
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Greek athletic games were often accompanied by festivals. At these festivals, the Greeks sacrificed animals for their gods and held competitions in music and poetry. The festivals were like American potlucks; the theoroi had to bring their own share. They provided offers for the gods and delivered money for the performing artists on behalf of their city. During the Hellenistic period (323-31 B.C.) the number of festivals increased vigorously.
The Hellenistic Period ended with the Roman conquest of Egypt, the last Hellenistic Kingdom. The Greek heartland and parts of Asia-Minor were already conquered in the second century B.C. The number of festivals increased even further under Roman rule, but the festivals did change. Athletes and artists started to unite in Rome and the new festivals were often thrown in honour of the Emperor. However, the way Roman governance influenced the practice of sending theoroi remains largely uninspected by scholars. As Asia in particular seemed to have flourished during the first centuries of Roman rule, resulting in a substantial amount of archaeological evidence, a focus on Asia seems logical.
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Social Network Analysis
Social Network Analysis (SNA) is a theory coming from the social sciences. It examines social structures in terms of networks. By considering the actors in a network as nodes, the relationships to other actors as ties and the interaction within these relationships as flows, SNA enables scholars to visually graph the network. These structures can help scholars to better understand agents-, connectivity- and change in a network.
Social Network Analysis shows that theoroi were important in connecting poleis (city states) to each other in the Hellenistic period. Theoroi linked the cities in Asia-Minor to different kind of networks. They connected their poleis to the regional religious network by traveling to festivals in the same region. Also, they participated in the Panhellenic festival network at the Olympic Games and the Panathenaia, a festival in Athens. Lastly, theoroi linked their cities to various sovereigns, like the king of Cappadocia. They were able to connect cities from all over the Greek world. Therefore, they can be seen as network agents, being the link between different networks, diplomatic and religious, regional and Panhellenic alike.
Sources from the Roman period mentioning theoroi are scarce. There is, however, archaeological evidence consisting of coins, which suggests the practice of sending these delegations in Asia-Minor did not disappear. During the Roman period, cities did not keep record of theōroi as systematically as before. Also, the word theoria (a delegation of theoroi) seems to have been replaced by sunthūsiā, meaning joint sacrifice. But this change of name was simply putting old wine in a new bottle; the practice of sending theoria remained unchanged. As mentioned before, poleis sent theoroi to kings to maintain a good diplomatic relationship. Rome gradually conquered these kingdoms in Asia. The ties were replaced by ties to the Roman Empire. Rome, therefore, became the central node in the diplomatic network.
Archaeological evidence
For information on theoroi, we rely on honorary decrees and ancient guest lists. The inscriptions for Moskhion, Herodas and Krates from Priene are a good example of a primary source. Priene is an ancient Greek settlement on the western coast of modern-day Turkey. There is a substantial amount of archaeological evidence from the Hellenistic period, including the remains of a large stoa. A stoa was a covered walkway used for different gatherings, including trading; a marketplace (agora) was usually surrounded by them. The Sacred Stoa of Priene had a length of 116 meters and was over six meters wide. It was built between 150 and 130 B.C. by the Cappadocian king Ariarathes V, an ally of Rome. The northern wall of the stoa, the long side opposing the pillars, had a large amount of decrees carved into it. Among these inscriptions are three extensive decrees in the middle of the wall for Moskhion, Herodas and Krates, three theoroi. All three have a length of approximately three hundred lines. However, some fragments of the wall are damaged or remain missing. Furthermore, inscriptions like these are rare.
This lack of usable evidence proves to be a large limitation. With SNA we can see the importance of sending delegations, but it does not show hierarchy and reciprocity within a network. Also, events in the inscriptions are difficult to date. Therefore, it remains unknown in what frequency the cities sent delegations. Lastly, the inscriptions only provide the destinations of theoroi. The journey itself might have been more important in connecting the Greek world than the destination. Therefore, although SNA can help us understand the importance of theoroi, much of the network remains invisible.
Further reading
Dillon, M. Pilgrims and Pilgrimage in Ancient Greece. London: Routledge, 1997.
Elsner, J. and I. Rutherford. Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman & Early Christian Antiquity: Seeing the Gods. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Nijf, O.M. van and C.G. Williamson. “Netwerken, panhelleense festivals en de globalisering van de Hellenistische wereld.” Groniek 200 (2014): 253-266.
Rutherford, I. “Network Theory and Theoric Networks.” Mediterranean Historical Review 22, no. 1 (2007): 23-37.
Rutherford, I. State Pilgrims and Sacred Observers in Ancient Greece: a Study of Theōriā and Theōroi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Elsner, J. and I. Rutherford. Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman & Early Christian Antiquity: Seeing the Gods. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Nijf, O.M. van and C.G. Williamson. “Netwerken, panhelleense festivals en de globalisering van de Hellenistische wereld.” Groniek 200 (2014): 253-266.
Rutherford, I. “Network Theory and Theoric Networks.” Mediterranean Historical Review 22, no. 1 (2007): 23-37.
Rutherford, I. State Pilgrims and Sacred Observers in Ancient Greece: a Study of Theōriā and Theōroi. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.